Diabetes, Nutrition, Obesity and Eating Disorders

The pancreatic islets, also known as Langerhans islets, are pancreatic regions that contain endocrine (hormone-producing) cells. The pancreatic islets account for 1-2 percent of pancreas volume and receive 10-15% of its blood flow. The pancreatic islet beta cells secrete insulin and thus play an important role in diabetes. They are thought to be destroyed by immune attacks.

A hormone is any member of a class of signalling molecules found in multicellular organisms that are transported to distant organs via intricate biological processes to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormonal signalling consists of the following steps:

1. The biosynthesis of a specific hormone in a specific tissue.
2. Hormone storage and secretion.
3. Hormone transport to the target cell (s).
4. Hormone recognition by an associated cell membrane or intracellular receptor protein.
5. A signal transduction process is used to relay and amplify the received hormonal signal: This causes a cellular response. The target cells' reaction may then be recognised by the original hormone-producing cells, resulting in a decrease in hormone production. This is an example of a negative feedback loop in a homeostatic system.
6. Hormone decomposition.

Obesity is a condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the point where it may be harmful to one's health. When a person's body mass index (BMI)—a measurement obtained by dividing a person's weight by the square of the person's height—exceeds 30 kg/m²; the range 25-30 kg/m² is considered overweight. Some East Asian countries calculate obesity using lower values.

Type 2 Diabetes, also known as adult-onset diabetes, is a type of diabetes characterised by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and a relative lack of insulin. Symptoms may also include increased hunger, fatigue, and unhealed sores. Long-term complications of diabetes include heart disease, strokes, diabetic retinopathy (which can lead to blindness), kidney failure, and poor blood flow in the limbs, which can lead to amputations. The primary metabolic effect of this is to inhibit glucose reabsorption in the kidney, lowering blood sugar. They work by inhibiting the sodium-glucose transport protein 2 (SGTP2) (SGLT2). Type II diabetes mellitus is treated with SGLT2 inhibitors (T2DM).

Depending on your type of diabetes, you may already be using insulin pens and blood glucose (sugar) monitors. Or perhaps apps and smart technology to help you monitor your weight and activity levels. Rapid-acting insulin, short-acting insulin, intermediate-acting insulin, mixed insulin, and long-acting insulin are the five types of insulin.

Chronic blood glucose elevation causes angiopathy, or damage to blood vessels. Because they do not require insulin, the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels absorb more glucose than normal. They then produce more surface glycoproteins than usual, causing the basement membrane to thicken and weaken. The problems that result are classified as "microvascular disease" due to damage to small blood vessels and "macrovascular disease" due to damage to arteries.

Cardiovascular disease is caused by macrovascular disease. Diabetic foot, which is often caused by a combination of sensory neuropathy and vascular damage, increases the risk of diabetic foot ulcers and infection, as well as necrosis and gangrene in severe cases. Type 2 diabetes is linked to more macrovascular diseases than type 1 diabetes. Peripheral vascular disease and an increased risk of infection have serious consequences in the care of the critically ill patient. Diabetes increases the risk of liver, pancreas, and endometrial cancer by doubling the risk. It doubles the risk of colorectal, breast, and bladder cancer by 20% to 50%.

Ketogenic diets may aid in the reduction of blood sugar levels. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are examples of macronutrients. Macronutrients make up the majority of the foods we eat, and while we all need them, they are especially important if we are trying to gain muscle or weight, or engaging in strenuous activities. Vitamins, minerals, organic acids, and phytochemicals are examples of micronutrients. Carotenoids can be produced by all of these organisms from fats and other basic organic metabolic building blocks. Retinoids are a class of chemical compounds that are either vitamin A vitamers or chemically related to it. Retinoids are used in medicine to regulate epithelial cell growth.

Cellular senescence is defined as an irreversible cell cycle arrest accompanied by functional decline. Telomere shortening or senescence-inducing stress causes it. Senescent cells secrete proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), which has a negative effect on adipose tissues and pancreatic -cells.

The body mass index is a general measure of how overweight a person is (BMI). Overweight is defined as having a BMI of 25 or higher, which includes pre-obesity (having a BMI between 25 and 29.9) and obesity (having a BMI of 30 or higher).  The body mass index (BMI) is a weight-for-height calculation that takes a person's height into account. Under certain dietary conditions, polymorphisms in various genes controlling appetite and metabolism predispose to obesity.

Diabetic neuropathy is caused by high blood sugar levels. Diabetes' effects on the central nervous system (CNS) cause cognitive dysfunction and cerebrovascular disease. Treatment-related hypoglycemia has CNS consequences as well. Neuroimaging advances are now providing more information about the structural and functional effects of diabetes on the CNS.

Telemedicine is one of the most diverse branches of digital health. Telemedicine also includes online health records, where both patients and doctors have constant access to pertinent information. Because of all of this digital information, patient data is now available to healthcare professionals and can be analysed to create better and smarter treatment plans. The glucose sensor is an amperometric electrochemical biosensor that generates a current from an electrochemical reaction between glucose and a layer of glucose oxidase on a working electrode (WE).

A clinical decision support system (CDSS) is a type of health information technology that provides knowledge and person-specific information to clinicians, staff, patients, and other individuals in order to improve health and health care. CDSS is a collection of tools designed to improve clinical decision-making. These tools include, among other things, computerised alerts and reminders to care providers and patients, clinical guidelines, condition-specific order sets, focused patient data reports and summaries, documentation templates, diagnostic support, and contextually relevant reference information.

Automated insulin delivery systems are automated (or semi-automated) systems designed to help people with diabetes, primarily type 1, control their blood glucose levels by automatically adjusting insulin delivery. In contrast to the continuous sensor alone, the closed-loop system requires no user input in response to monitor readings; the monitor and insulin pump system automatically deliver the correct amount of hormone calculated from the transmitted readings. The artificial pancreas device is made up of the system.

An insulin pump is a medical device that is used to administer insulin in the treatment of type 2 diabetes, also known as continuous subcutaneous insulin therapy. Depending on the design, the device configuration may differ. A traditional pump includes:

• the pump (including controls, processing module, and batteries)
• a disposable reservoir for insulin (inside the pump)
• a disposable infusion set, including a cannula for subcutaneous insertion (under the skin) and a tubing system to connect the insulin reservoir to the cannula.

Artificial pancreas can refer to any of the following technologies that attempt to replicate pancreatic endocrine functions: The most common meaning of "artificial pancreas" is automated insulin delivery systems, as diabetes mellitus is the most common disease of pancreatic dysfunction. An artificial pancreas is a man-made device that, like a human pancreas, is designed to release insulin in response to changing blood glucose levels. Artificial pancreas systems are being researched as a potential treatment option for type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients. There are three main artificial pancreas systems being worked on by researchers:

• Closed-loop artificial pancreas
• Bionic pancreas
• Implanted artificial pancreas

Diabetes mellitus patients are more likely to develop coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. COVID-19 may increase the risk of hyperglycemia in infected individuals. When combined with other risk factors, hyperglycemia may modulate immunological and inflammatory responses, predisposing individuals to severe COVID-19 and potentially fatal outcomes. Patients with diabetes should be aware that COVID-19 can raise blood glucose levels, so they should follow clinical guidelines for diabetes management more closely during the treatment period as:

• Controlling glucose levels in pandemic
• Inflammation and diabetes
• Immunology and diabetes
• Diabetes after COVID-19 positive